Mae DesTroismaisons
Controversies in Modern Genomics
October 2, 2013
Professor Tamara Williams
What is Behavioral Genetics?
In behavioral genetics, there is no such thing as nature versus nurture because the study takes both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors into account in an attempt to understand the reasons behind human behavior and individual variation within it (Arras, London, and Steinbock 791). Since the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003, this area of research has become extremely promising in terms of interpreting the brain and developing new therapies for brain disorders (791), as well as in diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease (Decamp and Sugarman). Behavioral genetics could provide us with the key to discovering some of life’s mysteries. There are also some serious concerns regarding the pursuit of this kind of knowledge, however. Fear of eugenics, medicalization, stigma and discrimination, unethical use of information, trait selection and/or modification, and effects on the legal system are some potential negative results of advances in behavioral genetics (Nuffield Council on Bioethics). Much of the unease surrounding this field rests on the fact that we cannot predict the future, and so cannot say for certain how emerging technology will affect healthcare and society.
A common misconception about genomics in general is that exactly one gene always influences exactly one trait or behavior. In actuality, the opposite is true. One gene almost never is wholly responsible for one characteristic. For example, there is no one gene “for” homosexuality, intelligence, or violent behavior (Decamp et al.). Multiple genes may contribute to an expression, or one gene may influence more than one trait. Furthermore, a gene’s function can be dependent on whether or not other genes are present. Genes can interact with environments, and the conditions of any given environment may contribute to phenotypic traits, too. Through studies of twins and large families, adoption studies, animal models, and now molecular genetics, scientists are beginning to realize “the relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors in influencing behavior” (Nuffield Council on Bioethics). Now that DNA can be sequenced and analyzed, progress in genomics is being made rapidly as researchers identify genes and groups of genes associated with behavioral phenotypes. Perhaps the technology is advancing faster than we are socially, politically, and ethically prepared to deal with.
What Do We Really Know?
The study of genetics has gained a bad reputation, historically. When people think of genetics, they often recall the ignorant pseudoscience of the American Eugenics Movement or Nazi eugenics. These two major scientific embarrassments were based on prejudices and flawed, dishonest research (Allen and The Eugenics Archive). However, today’s science is much more legitimate. Eric Turkheimer of The University of Virginia’s Department of Psychology has devised three laws of behavioral genetics, which are stated as follows:
Notice that he did not comment on whether or not certain genes or their expressions are good or bad, because remaining objective is imperative for quality science. Although there are exceptions to these laws, the point is that, as Turkheimer says, “the empirical facts are no longer a matter of serious controversy, [and] it is time to turn attention to what the three laws mean to the implication of the genetics of behavior for an understanding of complex human behavior and its development” (160).
Studies of families and twins, as well as adoption studies have shown the risks of such conditions as depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, alcoholism, autism, and bipolar disorder to be significantly influenced by genes (Hyman 802). However, scientists are not entirely sure exactly how or why they are linked—this is what molecular geneticists are working on. Take, for instance, the case of transgenic mice; that is, mice that have been injected with genes found to be related to diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Depending on the mouse strain a gene is inserted into, its effects can vary greatly. This is due to differences in genetic and/or environmental circumstances among the mice (803). It is true that animal models are far from perfect, but they do provide useful information and are much more acceptable to experiment with than humans. In order to fully understand how genes and environment affect human phenotypes, much more research and testing will have to be done.
Is There a Limit to our Knowledge?
At this point in time, it is difficult to say exactly how far we will go with research in behavioral genetics, how much we can learn from it, or how it will be applied. In his essay, Using Genetics to Understand Human Behavior: Promises and Risks, NIMH director Steven Hyman states: “It is quite possible that gene-gene and gene-environment interactions will be so complex that we will remain limited in our capacity to build adequate models or to find better diagnostics for mental illness” (804). Because of the breakneck pace at which the field of genetics is advancing, though, it is important to deeply consider the social, political, and ethical implications of it. We must be sure not to allow new discoveries in genomics become a cage; that is, to let it define us as human beings, or to foster discrimination. Therefore, we must begin thinking about the kinds of laws that will likely soon need to be enacted in order to prevent this. The future of this subject will surely impact areas like insurance, so it is vital that policies be implemented to keep our social system as just as possible and to ensure that private information is protected. Behavioral genetics an important and controversial topic, for it has the potential to drastically alter our perception of free will (Nuffield Council on Bioethics).
Works Cited
Allen, Garland E. “Flaws in Eugenics Research.” The Eugenics Archive. Cold Spring Harbor Laboritory, n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2013. <http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/>.
“Genetics and behaviour.” Nuffield Council on Bioethics. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2013. <http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/genetics-and-behaviour>.
Hyman, Steven E. “Using Genetics to Understand Human Behavior: Promises and Risks.” Ethical Issues in Modern Medicine. 8 ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2013. 799-804. Print.
Steinbock, Bonnie, John D. Arras, and Alex John London. “Emerging Technologies.” Ethical Issues in Modern Medicine. 8 ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2013. 791. Print.
Turkheimer, Eric. “Three Laws of Behavior Genetics and What They Mean.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 9.5 (2000): 160. Association for Psychological Science. Web. 2 Oct. 2013.
Controversies in Modern Genomics
October 2, 2013
Professor Tamara Williams
What is Behavioral Genetics?
In behavioral genetics, there is no such thing as nature versus nurture because the study takes both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors into account in an attempt to understand the reasons behind human behavior and individual variation within it (Arras, London, and Steinbock 791). Since the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003, this area of research has become extremely promising in terms of interpreting the brain and developing new therapies for brain disorders (791), as well as in diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease (Decamp and Sugarman). Behavioral genetics could provide us with the key to discovering some of life’s mysteries. There are also some serious concerns regarding the pursuit of this kind of knowledge, however. Fear of eugenics, medicalization, stigma and discrimination, unethical use of information, trait selection and/or modification, and effects on the legal system are some potential negative results of advances in behavioral genetics (Nuffield Council on Bioethics). Much of the unease surrounding this field rests on the fact that we cannot predict the future, and so cannot say for certain how emerging technology will affect healthcare and society.
A common misconception about genomics in general is that exactly one gene always influences exactly one trait or behavior. In actuality, the opposite is true. One gene almost never is wholly responsible for one characteristic. For example, there is no one gene “for” homosexuality, intelligence, or violent behavior (Decamp et al.). Multiple genes may contribute to an expression, or one gene may influence more than one trait. Furthermore, a gene’s function can be dependent on whether or not other genes are present. Genes can interact with environments, and the conditions of any given environment may contribute to phenotypic traits, too. Through studies of twins and large families, adoption studies, animal models, and now molecular genetics, scientists are beginning to realize “the relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors in influencing behavior” (Nuffield Council on Bioethics). Now that DNA can be sequenced and analyzed, progress in genomics is being made rapidly as researchers identify genes and groups of genes associated with behavioral phenotypes. Perhaps the technology is advancing faster than we are socially, politically, and ethically prepared to deal with.
What Do We Really Know?
The study of genetics has gained a bad reputation, historically. When people think of genetics, they often recall the ignorant pseudoscience of the American Eugenics Movement or Nazi eugenics. These two major scientific embarrassments were based on prejudices and flawed, dishonest research (Allen and The Eugenics Archive). However, today’s science is much more legitimate. Eric Turkheimer of The University of Virginia’s Department of Psychology has devised three laws of behavioral genetics, which are stated as follows:
- “All human behavioral traits are heritable.
- “The effect of being raised in the same family is smaller than the effect of the genes.
- “A substantial portion of the variation in complex human behavioral traits is not accounted for by the effects of genes or families” (160).
Notice that he did not comment on whether or not certain genes or their expressions are good or bad, because remaining objective is imperative for quality science. Although there are exceptions to these laws, the point is that, as Turkheimer says, “the empirical facts are no longer a matter of serious controversy, [and] it is time to turn attention to what the three laws mean to the implication of the genetics of behavior for an understanding of complex human behavior and its development” (160).
Studies of families and twins, as well as adoption studies have shown the risks of such conditions as depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, alcoholism, autism, and bipolar disorder to be significantly influenced by genes (Hyman 802). However, scientists are not entirely sure exactly how or why they are linked—this is what molecular geneticists are working on. Take, for instance, the case of transgenic mice; that is, mice that have been injected with genes found to be related to diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Depending on the mouse strain a gene is inserted into, its effects can vary greatly. This is due to differences in genetic and/or environmental circumstances among the mice (803). It is true that animal models are far from perfect, but they do provide useful information and are much more acceptable to experiment with than humans. In order to fully understand how genes and environment affect human phenotypes, much more research and testing will have to be done.
Is There a Limit to our Knowledge?
At this point in time, it is difficult to say exactly how far we will go with research in behavioral genetics, how much we can learn from it, or how it will be applied. In his essay, Using Genetics to Understand Human Behavior: Promises and Risks, NIMH director Steven Hyman states: “It is quite possible that gene-gene and gene-environment interactions will be so complex that we will remain limited in our capacity to build adequate models or to find better diagnostics for mental illness” (804). Because of the breakneck pace at which the field of genetics is advancing, though, it is important to deeply consider the social, political, and ethical implications of it. We must be sure not to allow new discoveries in genomics become a cage; that is, to let it define us as human beings, or to foster discrimination. Therefore, we must begin thinking about the kinds of laws that will likely soon need to be enacted in order to prevent this. The future of this subject will surely impact areas like insurance, so it is vital that policies be implemented to keep our social system as just as possible and to ensure that private information is protected. Behavioral genetics an important and controversial topic, for it has the potential to drastically alter our perception of free will (Nuffield Council on Bioethics).
Works Cited
Allen, Garland E. “Flaws in Eugenics Research.” The Eugenics Archive. Cold Spring Harbor Laboritory, n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2013. <http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/>.
“Genetics and behaviour.” Nuffield Council on Bioethics. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Oct. 2013. <http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/genetics-and-behaviour>.
Hyman, Steven E. “Using Genetics to Understand Human Behavior: Promises and Risks.” Ethical Issues in Modern Medicine. 8 ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2013. 799-804. Print.
Steinbock, Bonnie, John D. Arras, and Alex John London. “Emerging Technologies.” Ethical Issues in Modern Medicine. 8 ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2013. 791. Print.
Turkheimer, Eric. “Three Laws of Behavior Genetics and What They Mean.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 9.5 (2000): 160. Association for Psychological Science. Web. 2 Oct. 2013.