Mae DesTroismaisons
Nature and Culture
February 20, 2014
Professor Walter Kuentzel
The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) contains 20 million acres of land in Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho (Montana Office of Tourism). It is comprised of two national parks and seven forests, as well as public and private land. The GYE is managed by a variety of groups including private landowners, nongovernmental organizations, private corporations, and over 25 state and federal agencies. In the mid-1920s, the gray wolf, a top predator, was eradicated from the region (Cain, Bowman, & Hacker, 501). At the time, this event was something to be celebrated because wolves were considered an undesirable species, mainly due to their depredation on livestock. In the early years of Yellowstone National Park, there were no restrictions on hunting in the park. Hunters, poachers, administrators, tourists, and basically anyone could legally shoot any predator or game animal they desired (“The Wolves of Yellowstone: A Great Ecological History”).
Because wolves were so intensely feared and disliked by the majority of people at the time, the wolf population was especially stressed by the lack of wildlife protection. By 1883, laws protecting park animals were finally passed; however, they did not apply to most predators, so the wolf population continued to decline. In 1907, the Animal Damage Control program was introduced. This program was supported primarily by the cattle and livestock industries of the western United States and it led to the killing of approximately 2,000 wolves, despite the fact that they were already on the brink of extinction. About ten years later, when the National Park Service was formed, legislation that encouraged “the destruction of potentially dangerous species” was enacted, and the last of Yellowstone’s once abundant gray wolves were extinguished (“The Wolves of Yellowstone: A Great Ecological History”).
The ecological consequences of the gray wolf extinction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem were profound. Once the wolves were gone, it became apparent that the elk population was largely overgrazing meadows. In an attempt to resolve this issue, elk were exported to special elk farms. Another attempt to control elk numbers began in 1968 upon the implementation of a “natural regulation” policy, under which the elk population grew four times its size in 30 years. Because elk became so overpopulated in the 1950s and 60s, the plant species they consume became scarce as a result. Beavers prefer to eat many of the same plants as elk (e.g. aspen and willow), and since the two species’ shared food sources were less abundant, beaver populations dwindled. In turn, many other organisms that rely on the pond ecosystems created by beavers also were negatively affected. The culture of the 1920s simply did not understand predator-prey relationships well enough to predict that the removal of a keystone species would cause such a serious domino effect in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (Cain, et al. 502).
After 70 years of wolf absence, much research, and conflagrant debate, wolves were reintroduced into the GYE in 1995 and 1996. Now, almost 20 years later, the region has undergone another set of drastic environmental changes (Cain, et al. 501). In some areas of the GYE, stream flow decreased and sedimentation increased as a result of rising willow populations, which also create cool, shaded waters for birds and trout. Beaver dams have altered water flow patterns, which have made marshlands that may provide habitats for scarce species like otters, mink, muskrats, and ducks in the future (Cain, et al. 502).
In 2011, wolves were removed from the endangered species lists of both Idaho and Montana, but not Wyoming. This is mainly because Wyoming’s environmentalists have been the most adamant about not killing wolves (“As Gray Wolves Return, So Does Debate Over Hunting”). However, Wyoming has now compromised with the Federal Government, and is allowing wolf hunting in certain “trophy areas” of the state during a particular season, but hunting is still forbidden in Yellowstone. This has proven to be an extremely controversial move.
Because wolves do not adhere to geographic boundaries implemented by humans, pro-hunting organizations like The Wyoming Game and Fish Department and hunting advocacy groups hope to maintain the wolf population (causing it to neither rise nor drop) by only allowing wolf-hunts to take place in designated areas outside of Yellowstone. Only two wolf-hunts have occurred since reintroduction in the mid-1990s, and the quota for 2013 was only 26, half of the previous year’s number (Neary). The main initiative for legalizing the hunting of wolves in this area is because wolves do kill game and livestock. Joe Tilden, a county commissioner in Wyoming and founder of a hunting advocacy group told the hosts of NPR’s All Things Considered, “My personal opinion is they need to be hunted wherever and whenever they occur, because wolves are extremely secretive creatures; they’re extremely intelligent…When you’re hunting a predator, you’re not only out to enjoy the sport, but you’re out to control the number of predators” (“As Gray Wolves Return, So Does Debate Over Hunting”).
Environmentalists are disapproving of the wolf-hunt, though. They argue that wolf hunting will negatively affect the connections between the Yellowstone wolf population and other wolf populations of the northern Rockies (Neary). If one wolf population becomes too isolated, there will be a loss of genetic diversity, a phenomenon that leads to a plethora of health problems for animals. Additionally, conservationists fear that hunting will soon be allowed on the John D. Rockefeller Parkway, which connects Yellowstone National Park to Grand Teton National Park. “Wolves use that area extensively traveling through the two parks, and it’s a very wild area,” said Sharon Mader, representing the National Parks Conservation Association on All Things Considered. According to NPR, she says this corridor is essential for maintaining viable populations. The National Parks Service is also against hunting on the parkway. Herbert Frost, associate director of the Park Service told the radio hosts, “Visitors come to Yellowstone, they come to Tetons, they come to the parkway just to see wolves, so we want to manage the park so that people can enjoy wildlife viewing” (“As Gray Wolves Return, So Does Debate Over Hunting”).
The pro-wolf hunting standpoint possessed by hunting advocacy groups is compatible with the Arcadian Vision, which emphasizes “the economy of nature.” People like Joe Tilden see hunting in terms of its benefit for humans, but do not ignore the idea that the earth is an “inter-related whole.” The anti-hunting position taken by environmentalists like Herbert Frost represents the idea of nature as beneficial to humans too, but in a more Romantic way, focusing on biocentrism and a “fascination with natural history” (Kuentzel). The subject of hunting is what causes the Rewilding Movement to lie somewhere between the lines of Romanticism and the Arcadian Vision, unable to be adequately defined by either view of nature.
Works Cited
“As Gray Wolves Return, So Does Debate Over Hunting.” Shogren, Elizabeth. All Things Considered. NPR. 10 Feb. 2012. Web. Transcript.
Kuentzel, Walter. “Commonalities and differences between the Arcadian Vision, Romanticism, and Transcendentalism.” NR 002: Nature and Culture. The University of Vermont. Ira Allen/Billings Lecture Hall, Burlington. 18 Feb. 2014. Class lecture.
Montana Office of Tourism. “Greater Yellowstone Region.” Montana Official State Travel Site. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2014. <http://visitmt.com/national_parks/greater_yellowstone_region/>.
Neary, Ben. “Wyoming kicks off downsized wolf-hunting season.” Casper Star-Tribune Online. N.p., 3 Oct. 2013. Web. 20 Feb. 2014. <http://trib.com/news/state-and-regional/wyoming-kicks-off-downsized-wolf-hunting-season/article_f9823f62-c83c-5434-8488-8f05efb034e1.html>.
“The Wolves of Yellowstone: A Great Ecological History.” Vertebrate Journal. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2014. <http://www.vertebratejournal.org/609/the-wolves-of-yellowstone-a-great-ecological-history/>.
Nature and Culture
February 20, 2014
Professor Walter Kuentzel
The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) contains 20 million acres of land in Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho (Montana Office of Tourism). It is comprised of two national parks and seven forests, as well as public and private land. The GYE is managed by a variety of groups including private landowners, nongovernmental organizations, private corporations, and over 25 state and federal agencies. In the mid-1920s, the gray wolf, a top predator, was eradicated from the region (Cain, Bowman, & Hacker, 501). At the time, this event was something to be celebrated because wolves were considered an undesirable species, mainly due to their depredation on livestock. In the early years of Yellowstone National Park, there were no restrictions on hunting in the park. Hunters, poachers, administrators, tourists, and basically anyone could legally shoot any predator or game animal they desired (“The Wolves of Yellowstone: A Great Ecological History”).
Because wolves were so intensely feared and disliked by the majority of people at the time, the wolf population was especially stressed by the lack of wildlife protection. By 1883, laws protecting park animals were finally passed; however, they did not apply to most predators, so the wolf population continued to decline. In 1907, the Animal Damage Control program was introduced. This program was supported primarily by the cattle and livestock industries of the western United States and it led to the killing of approximately 2,000 wolves, despite the fact that they were already on the brink of extinction. About ten years later, when the National Park Service was formed, legislation that encouraged “the destruction of potentially dangerous species” was enacted, and the last of Yellowstone’s once abundant gray wolves were extinguished (“The Wolves of Yellowstone: A Great Ecological History”).
The ecological consequences of the gray wolf extinction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem were profound. Once the wolves were gone, it became apparent that the elk population was largely overgrazing meadows. In an attempt to resolve this issue, elk were exported to special elk farms. Another attempt to control elk numbers began in 1968 upon the implementation of a “natural regulation” policy, under which the elk population grew four times its size in 30 years. Because elk became so overpopulated in the 1950s and 60s, the plant species they consume became scarce as a result. Beavers prefer to eat many of the same plants as elk (e.g. aspen and willow), and since the two species’ shared food sources were less abundant, beaver populations dwindled. In turn, many other organisms that rely on the pond ecosystems created by beavers also were negatively affected. The culture of the 1920s simply did not understand predator-prey relationships well enough to predict that the removal of a keystone species would cause such a serious domino effect in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (Cain, et al. 502).
After 70 years of wolf absence, much research, and conflagrant debate, wolves were reintroduced into the GYE in 1995 and 1996. Now, almost 20 years later, the region has undergone another set of drastic environmental changes (Cain, et al. 501). In some areas of the GYE, stream flow decreased and sedimentation increased as a result of rising willow populations, which also create cool, shaded waters for birds and trout. Beaver dams have altered water flow patterns, which have made marshlands that may provide habitats for scarce species like otters, mink, muskrats, and ducks in the future (Cain, et al. 502).
In 2011, wolves were removed from the endangered species lists of both Idaho and Montana, but not Wyoming. This is mainly because Wyoming’s environmentalists have been the most adamant about not killing wolves (“As Gray Wolves Return, So Does Debate Over Hunting”). However, Wyoming has now compromised with the Federal Government, and is allowing wolf hunting in certain “trophy areas” of the state during a particular season, but hunting is still forbidden in Yellowstone. This has proven to be an extremely controversial move.
Because wolves do not adhere to geographic boundaries implemented by humans, pro-hunting organizations like The Wyoming Game and Fish Department and hunting advocacy groups hope to maintain the wolf population (causing it to neither rise nor drop) by only allowing wolf-hunts to take place in designated areas outside of Yellowstone. Only two wolf-hunts have occurred since reintroduction in the mid-1990s, and the quota for 2013 was only 26, half of the previous year’s number (Neary). The main initiative for legalizing the hunting of wolves in this area is because wolves do kill game and livestock. Joe Tilden, a county commissioner in Wyoming and founder of a hunting advocacy group told the hosts of NPR’s All Things Considered, “My personal opinion is they need to be hunted wherever and whenever they occur, because wolves are extremely secretive creatures; they’re extremely intelligent…When you’re hunting a predator, you’re not only out to enjoy the sport, but you’re out to control the number of predators” (“As Gray Wolves Return, So Does Debate Over Hunting”).
Environmentalists are disapproving of the wolf-hunt, though. They argue that wolf hunting will negatively affect the connections between the Yellowstone wolf population and other wolf populations of the northern Rockies (Neary). If one wolf population becomes too isolated, there will be a loss of genetic diversity, a phenomenon that leads to a plethora of health problems for animals. Additionally, conservationists fear that hunting will soon be allowed on the John D. Rockefeller Parkway, which connects Yellowstone National Park to Grand Teton National Park. “Wolves use that area extensively traveling through the two parks, and it’s a very wild area,” said Sharon Mader, representing the National Parks Conservation Association on All Things Considered. According to NPR, she says this corridor is essential for maintaining viable populations. The National Parks Service is also against hunting on the parkway. Herbert Frost, associate director of the Park Service told the radio hosts, “Visitors come to Yellowstone, they come to Tetons, they come to the parkway just to see wolves, so we want to manage the park so that people can enjoy wildlife viewing” (“As Gray Wolves Return, So Does Debate Over Hunting”).
The pro-wolf hunting standpoint possessed by hunting advocacy groups is compatible with the Arcadian Vision, which emphasizes “the economy of nature.” People like Joe Tilden see hunting in terms of its benefit for humans, but do not ignore the idea that the earth is an “inter-related whole.” The anti-hunting position taken by environmentalists like Herbert Frost represents the idea of nature as beneficial to humans too, but in a more Romantic way, focusing on biocentrism and a “fascination with natural history” (Kuentzel). The subject of hunting is what causes the Rewilding Movement to lie somewhere between the lines of Romanticism and the Arcadian Vision, unable to be adequately defined by either view of nature.
Works Cited
“As Gray Wolves Return, So Does Debate Over Hunting.” Shogren, Elizabeth. All Things Considered. NPR. 10 Feb. 2012. Web. Transcript.
Kuentzel, Walter. “Commonalities and differences between the Arcadian Vision, Romanticism, and Transcendentalism.” NR 002: Nature and Culture. The University of Vermont. Ira Allen/Billings Lecture Hall, Burlington. 18 Feb. 2014. Class lecture.
Montana Office of Tourism. “Greater Yellowstone Region.” Montana Official State Travel Site. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2014. <http://visitmt.com/national_parks/greater_yellowstone_region/>.
Neary, Ben. “Wyoming kicks off downsized wolf-hunting season.” Casper Star-Tribune Online. N.p., 3 Oct. 2013. Web. 20 Feb. 2014. <http://trib.com/news/state-and-regional/wyoming-kicks-off-downsized-wolf-hunting-season/article_f9823f62-c83c-5434-8488-8f05efb034e1.html>.
“The Wolves of Yellowstone: A Great Ecological History.” Vertebrate Journal. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2014. <http://www.vertebratejournal.org/609/the-wolves-of-yellowstone-a-great-ecological-history/>.